Background information about waste disposal practices Essays

Background information about waste disposal practices Essays Background information about waste disposal practices Paper Background information about waste disposal practices Paper A primary objective of waste management today is to protect the public and the environment from potentially harmful effects of waste. Some waste materials are normally safe, but can become hazardous if not managed properly. For example, 1 gal (3. 75 1) of used motor oil can potentially contaminate one million gal (3,790,000 1) of drinking water . Every individual, business, or organization must make decisions and take some responsibility regarding the management of his or her waste. On a larger scale, government agencies at the local, state, and federal levels enact and enforce regulations governing waste management. These agencies also educate the public about proper waste management. In addition, local government agencies may provide disposal or recycling services, or they may hire or authorize private companies to perform those functions. Throughout history, there have been four basic methods of managing waste: dumping it, burning it, finding another use for it (reuse and recycling), and not creating the waste in the first place (waste prevention). How those four methods are utilized depends on the wastes being managed. Municipal solid waste is different from industrial, agricultural, or mining waste. Hazardous waste is a category that should be anteed separately, although it sometimes is generated with the other types. The first humans did not worry much about waste management. They simply left their garbage where it dropped. However, as permanent communities developed, people began to dispose of their waste in designated dumping areas. The use of such open dumps for garbage is still common in many parts of the world. Open dumps have major disadvantages, however, especially in heavily populated areas. Toxic chemicals can filter down through a dump and contaminate groundwater . The liquid that filters through a dump or landfill is called leached. Dumps may also generate methane, a flammable and explosive gas produced when organic wastes decompose under anaerobic (oxygen-poor) conditions. The landfill, also known as the sanitary landfill, was invented in England in the 1 sass. Ata landfill, the garbage is compacted and covered at the end of every day with several inches of soil . Landfill became common in the united States in the sass. By the late sass, it was the dominant method for disposing municipal solid waste in the nation. Early landfills had significant problems with leached and methane, but those have largely been resolved at facilities built since about he early 1 sass. Well-engineered landfills are lined with several feet of clay and with thick plastic sheets. Leached is collected at the bottom, drained through pipes, and processed. Methane gas is also safely piped out of many landfills. The dumping of waste does not just take place on land. Ocean dumping, in which barges carry garbage out to sea, was once used as a disposal method by some United States coastal cities and is still practiced by some nations. Sewage sludge, or waste material from sewage treatment, was dumped at sea in huge quantities by New York City as recently as 1 992, but his is now prohibited in the United States. Also called bossily, sewage sludge is not generally considered solid waste, but it is sometimes composted with organic municipal solid waste. Burning has a long history in municipal solid waste management. Some American cities began to burn their garbage in the late nineteenth century in devices called crematory. These Were not very efficient, however, and cities went back to dumping and other methods. In the 1 sass and sass, many cities built new types of more-efficient garbage burners known as incinerators. The early incinerators were rather dirty in arms of their emissions of air pollutants, and beginning in the sass they were gradually shut down. However, in the 1 9705, waste burning enjoyed another revival. These newer incinerators, many of which are still in operation, are called resource recovery or waste-to-energy plants. In addition to burning garbage, they produce heat or electricity that can be used in nearby buildings or residences, or sold to a utility. Many local governments became interested in waste-to-energy plants following the energy crisis in 1973. However, since the mid-1 sass, it became difficult to find locations to lid these facilities, mainly because of public opposition focused on air- quality issues. Another problem with incineration is that it generates ash, which must be landfill. Incinerators usually reduce the volume of garbage by 70-90%. The remainder of the incinerated waste comes out as ash that often contains high concentrations of toxic substances. Municipal solid waste will likely always be landfill or burned to some extent. In the past 25 years, however, non-disposal methods such as waste prevention and recycling have become more common. Because of public concerns and the high costs of entangling and burning (especially to build new facilities), local governments want to reduce the amount of waste that must be disposed in these ways. Municipal solid waste is a relatively small part of the overall waste generated in the United States. More than 95% of the total 4. 5 billion tons of solid waste generated in the United States each year is agricultural, mining, or industrial waste. These wastes do not receive nearly as much attention as municipal solid waste, because most people do not have direct experience with them. Also, agricultural and mining wastes, which make up 88% of the overall total f solid waste, are largely handled at the places they are generated, that is, in the fields or at remote mining sites. Mining nearly always generates substantial waste, whether the material being mined is coal , clay, sand , gravel, building stone, or metallic ore. Early mining concentrated on the richest lodes of minerals . Because modern methods of mining are more efficient, they can extract the desired minerals from veins that are less rich. However, much more waste is produced in the process. Many of the plant and animal wastes generated by agriculture remain in the fields or rangelands. These wastes can be beneficial because they return organic matter and nutrients to the soil. However, modern techniques of raising large numbers of animals in small areas generate huge volumes of animal waste, or manure. Waste in such concentrated quantities must be managed carefully, or it can contaminate groundwater or surface water. Industrial wastes that are not hazardous have traditionally been sent to landfills or incinerators. The rising cost of disposal has prompted many companies to seek alternative methods for handling these Wastes, such as Waste prevention and recycling. Often a manufacturing plant can reclaim certain east materials by feeding them back into the production process. Hazardous wastes are materials considered harmful or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Wastes may be deemed hazardous because they are poisonous, flammable, or corrosive, or because they react with other substances in a dangerous way. Industrial operations have produced large quantities of hazardous waste for hundreds of years. Some hazardous wastes, such as mercury and dioxins, may be released as gases or vapors. Many hazardous industrial wastes are in liquid form. One of the greatest risks is that these wastes will contaminate water supplies. An estimated 60% of all hazardous industrial waste in the United States is disposed using a method called deep-well injection. With this technique, liquid wastes are injected through a well into an impervious reconfirmation that keeps the waste isolated from groundwater and surface water. Other methods of underground burial are also used to dispose hazardous industrial waste and other types of dangerous material. Pesticides used in farming may contaminate agricultural waste. Because of the enormous volumes of pesticides used in agriculture, the proper handling of unused pesticides is a daunting challenge for waste managers. Certain mining techniques also utilize toxic chemicals. Piles of mining and metal-processing waste, known as waste rock and tailings, may contain hazardous substances. Because of a reaction with the oxygen in the air, large amounts of toxic acids may form in waste rock and tailings and leach into surface waters. Public attitudes also play a pivotal role in decisions about waste management. Virtually every proposed new landfill or waste-to-energy plant is opposed by people who live near the site. Public officials and planners refer to this reaction as NIMBI, which stands for Not In My Backyard If an opposition group becomes vocal r powerful enough, a city or county council is not likely to approve a proposed waste-disposal project. The public also wields considerable influence with businesses. Recycling and waste prevention initiatives enjoy strong public support. About 19% of United States municipal solid waste was recycled or composted in 1 994, was incinerated, and 71 % was landfill. Preventing or reducing waste is typically the least expensive method for managing waste. Waste prevention may also reduce the amount of resources needed to manufacture or package a product. For example, most roll-on deodorants once came in a plastic bottle, which was inside a box. Beginning about 1 992, deodorant manufacturers redesigned the bottle so that it would not tip-over easily on store shelves, which eliminated the need for the box as packaging. This is the type of waste prevention called source reduction. It can save businesses money, while also reducing waste. Waste prevention includes many different practices that result in using fewer materials or products, or using materials that are less toxic. For example, a chain of clothing stores can ship its products to its Stores in reusable garment bags, instead of disposable lactic bags. Manufacturers of household batteries can reduce the amount of mercury in their batteries. In an office, employees can copy documents on both sides of a sheet of paper, instead of just one side. A family can use cloth instead of paper napkins. Composting grass clippings and tree leaves at home, rather than having them picked up for disposal or municipal composting, is another form of waste prevention. A resident can leave grass clippings on the lawn after mowing (this is known as grass-cycling), or can compost leaves and grass in a backyard composting bin, or use them as a mulch in the garden. When the current recycling boom began in the late sass, markets for the recyclables were not sufficiently considered. A result was that some recyclable materials were collected in large quantities but could not be sold, and some ended up going to landfills. Today, the development of recycling markets is a high priority. Close the loop is a catch-phrase in recycling education; it means that true recycling (I. E. , the recycling loop) has not taken place until the new product is purchased and used. To boost recycling markets, many local and state governments now require that their own agencies purchase and use products made from cycled materials. In a major step Fontana for recycling, President Bill Cloudiness an executive order in 1993 requiring the federal government to use more recycled products. Many managers of government recycling programs feel that manufacturers should take more responsibility for the disposal of their products and packaging rather than letting municipalities bear the brunt of the disposal costs. An innovative and controversial law in Germany requires manufacturers to set up collection and recycling programs for disused packaging of their products. The high cost of government-created recycling programs is often criticized. Supporters of recycling argue it is still less expensive than landfill or incineration, when all costs are considered. Another concern about recycling is that the recycling process itself may generate hazardous wastes that must be treated and disposed. Recycling of construction and demolition (CD) debris is one of the growth areas for recycling. Although CD debris is not normally considered a type of municipal solid waste, millions of tons of it have gone to municipal landfills over the years. If this material is separated at the construction or demolition site into separate piles of concrete, wood, and steel, it can usually e recycled. Composting is considered either a form of recycling, or a close relative. Composting occurs when organic waste-? such as yard waste, food waste, and paper-?is broken down by microbial processes. The resulting material, known as compost, can be used by landscapers and gardeners to improve the fertility of their soil. Yard waste, primarily grass clippings and tree leaves, makes up about one-fifth of the weight of municipal solid waste. Some states do not allow this waste to be disposed. These yard-waste bans have resulted in rapid growth for municipal composting programs. In these orgasm, yard waste is collected by trucks (separately from garbage and recyclables) and taken to a composting plant, where it is chopped up, heaped, and regularly turned until it becomes compost. Waste from food-processing plants and produce trimmings from grocery stores are composted in some parts of the country. Residential food waste is the next frontier for composting. The city of Halifax, in Canada, collects food waste from households and composts it in large, central facilities. Biological treatment, a technique for handling hazardous wastes, could be called a high-tech form of composting. Like composting biological treatment employs microbes to break down wastes through a series of metabolic reactions. Many substances that are toxic, carcinogenic (cancer-causing), or undesirable in the environment for other reasons can be rendered harmless through this method. Extensive research on biological treatment is in progress. Genetic engineering, a controversial branch of biology dealing with the modification of genetic codes, is closely linked with biological treatment, and could produce significant advances in this field. Waste management became a particularly expensive proposition during the 1 9905, especially for disposal. Consequently, waste managers constantly seek innovations that will improve efficiency and reduce costs. Several new ideas in land-filling involve the reclamation of useful resources from wastes. For example, instead of just burning or releasing the methane gas that is generated within solid-waste landfills, some operators collect this gas, and then use it to produce power locally or sell it as fuel. At a few landfills, managers have experimented with a bold but relatively untested concept known as landfill mining. This involves digging up an existing landfill to recover recyclable materials, and sometimes o re-bury the garbage more efficiently. Landfill mining has been criticized as costly and impractical, but some operators believe it can save money under certain circumstances. In the high-tech world of incineration, new designs and concepts are constantly being tried. One waste-to-energy technology for solid waste being introduced to the United States is called fluoride-bed incineration. About 40% of incinerators in Japan use this technology, which is designed to have lower emissions of some air pollutants than conventional incinerators. A 1 994 United States Supreme Court ruling could increase the cost of incineration significantly. The Court ruled that some ash produced by municipal solid-waste incinerators must be treated as a hazardous waste, because of high levels of toxic substances such as lead and cadmium. This means that incinerator ash now has to be tested, and part or all of the material may have to go to a hazardous waste landfill rather than a standard landfill. A much smaller type of incinerator is used at many hospitals to burn medical wastes, such as blood, surgical waste, syringes, and laboratory waste. The safety of these medical waste incinerators has become a major issue in some communities. A study by the Environmental Protection Agency released n 1 994 found that medical waste incinerators were leading sources of dioxin emissions into the air. The same study warned that dioxins, which can be formed by the burning of certain chemical compounds, pose a high risk of causing cancer and other health hazards in humans. The greatest impetus for waste prevention will likely come from the public. More and more citizens will come to understand that pesticides, excessive packaging, and the use of disposable rather than durable items have important environmental costs. Through the growth of the information society, knowledge about these and other environmental issues will increase. This should result in a continuing evolution towards more efficient and environmentally sensitive waste management. Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the rate of consumption of natural resources. All waste materials, whether they are solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive fall within the emit of waste management. Waste management practices can differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management of non-hazardous waste residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local superconductivitys, while management for non- hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator subject to local, national or international authorities. Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include: In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Invade, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the [emailprotected] [3] single-line and ring-line automatic waste collection system, here the waste is automatically collected through relatively small diameter flexible pipes from waste collection points spread out up to a distance of four kilometers from the waste collections stations. In Canadian urban centers curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill. In China, Plastic paralysis or Tire paralysis is: the process of converting waste lactic/tires into industrial fuels like paralysis oil, carbon black and hydrocarbon gas. End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat, steam or electricity. Paralysis plant is also known as: paralysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry, plastic and tire recycling unit etc. The system is used in USA California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the united Kingdom and in Israel-For example, REESE paralysis plant that has been operational at Texas USA since December 2011, and processes up to 60 tons per day. [J In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate. In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the Aerobic system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and running the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost.

Medicaid APA Essay Example

Medicaid APA Essay Example Medicaid APA Paper Medicaid APA Paper According to the New York State Department, Medicaid is a program created by the government to assist the New York working class, particularly those who could not afford to pay for their health care and medical needs. Accordingly, this benefit poses a few requisites before a person could avail. Among them includes; the very high medical bills that no ordinary employee can afford; a supplemental security income or (SSI), as well as age, disability and income requirements that falls within certain bracket identified as fit to be considered beneficiary. The scope of Medicaid is so vast that it caters to almost all kinds of health care needs, from ordinary illness, to maternity and childcare benefits and even to those critical in nature, such as cancer and chemotherapy. It began as a program that pays off health care benefits for disabled, unemployed as well as the elderly. In 1996, The Michigan Department of Health was created along with a portion of the Department of Public; Mental and the Medical Services Administration; and is responsible for the collection of information of a wide range of health related information. The purpose of this collection is the baseline monitoring of the well being of its citizen and is mainly responsible for health policy and management of the population. It set goals to maintain and to execute to strive for healthier conditions; promote access to the broadest possible range of quality services and supports; prevent disease, promote wellness and improve the quality of life. The Medicaid health care coverage for people with limited incomes, mental health services for those with mental illness or disabilities, health promotion, disease prevention, drug enforcements, treatment and education are among its basic duties. In order for Michigan to accomplish these goals, funding for health services comes from the Federal Government in the form of operating grants. The rest comes from taxes paid by its citizens. Medicaid uses utilization review, which is the process of evaluating the appropriateness of services provided. The main objective is to review each case and determine the most appropriate level of service and the setting in which it should be delivered, the most cost-efficient methods for care delivery, and the need to plan subsequent care. It is divided into three categories which are prospective, concurrent, and retrospective. One example of prospective care is preventing unnecessary or inappropriate institutionalization. It notifies the concurrent review system that a case will be occurring and allows them to prepare for discharge planning. Concurrent utilization review occurs when decisions regarding appropriateness are made during the course of health care utilization. An example of this would involve monitoring the length of inpatient stays and discharge planning. Retrospective utilization is managing utilization after the services have been delivered. The review is based on an examination of medical records to access the appropriateness of care. This can be helpful for taking corrective action and for monitoring subsequent progress. Utilization control is about is practice profiling, a method that refers to the development of provider-specific practice patterns and the comparison of individual practice patterns to some norm. The profiles are basically used to identify which physicians, compared to other physicians in their category, are using surgery, tests, or hospitalization excessively. The profile reports are used to give feedback to providers so that they can modify their behavior of medical practice. They can also help detect fraud and abuse. Medicaid provides many programs that help families in need with assistance for medical, nutritional, food, day care or other expenses. It encompasses a wide array of the public and includes: adults, children and teens, senior citizens, pregnant women or persons with disabilities, some of which are broken down according to specific guidelines. The up-to-date health care coverage and the promotion of quality of care are made possible through the maintenance of agency regulatory control. One of which is CMS, that plays a key role in the overall direction of the healthcare services and serves approximately 90 million beneficiaries (US Department of Health. 2005). It anticipates accomplishing the mission by continuing to transform and modernize the health care system. They set standards and guidelines for organizations to follow and adhere to in order to provide the best possible care. Another important regulatory system is called the Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set which is a set of performance data developed and maintained by the National Committee for Quality Assurance. It is most widely used to standardize performance measure in the managed care industry. HEDIS establishes accountability in managed care and assure that employers, regulators and consumers have the information the need. In a home health care situation the primary care giver is usually not the physician. The physician is communicated with by phone and with documentation from the caregivers. The primary caregivers are usually the nurses and other team members who are involved directly with the patients care. Although, the original order to begin home care must be initiated by the physician if skilled care is to be obtained. According to the 1995 Guide to Health Insurance for People with Medicare pays the full cost of medically necessary home health visits by a Medicare-approved home health agency. This coverage must meet specific criteria, but it can be a relief to family members to know that their loved ones can be taken care of at home without worrying about the expenses. Unfortunately, if the care to be given within the home is termed not medically necessary the expense is not covered. This can include items such as meal and medication delivery, a percentage of necessary durable medical equipment, personal care and homemaker services. Health care services that are not included can become quite numerous. It is often difficult for family members to understand why specific services are not covered especially when they appear to be necessary for the care of the patient. These costs can add up quite quickly and the impact of the cost can become quite distressing for family members and patients on a limited budget. In these cases a Social Worker is usually provided to help the patient and family explore other avenues which may enable them to cover their health care costs. Assisted living is an arrangement to residents of a facility that enables them to complete certain daily activities while remaining independent. The services provided enable the resident to achieve maximum function of their activities of daily living. These services help assist the aged, blind, disabled, and other functionally limited individuals with necessary daily activities which they require help with or are unable to perform on their own. Personal care does not include specific health oriented services which would require the services of a certified or licensed professional. The goal of an assisted living facility is to have the residents feel independent. Reference Page Department of Health (2007). Medicaid in New York City. Retrieved online on 16 March 2007 from: health. state. ny. us/health_care/medicaid/#definitionCare. US Department of Health: on Center for Medicare and Medical Services. USA. gov, page last updated on 07 July 2005, and retrieved on 16 March 2007 from: cms. hhs. gov/History/

The connection between theories and child development at Kindergarten Research Paper

The connection between theories and child development at Kindergarten age - Research Paper Example These changes include; how children are growing, how they are moving, and how they are identifying their environment (Wadsworth, & Wadsworth, 1984). The cognitive development domain of childhood development relates to the mental development processes such as language development, memory development, and problem solving capability that children often use in order to acquire and use knowledge. Finally, the emotional and social development domain of childhood development focuses on how children learn to handle associations with others, as well as comprehend of their own emotional states (Wadsworth, & Wadsworth, 1984). During the kindergarten years of children, their bodies undergo continuous and dramatic changes. The changes are not only an issue of growing taller and gaining but also entail multifaceted series of changes in body composition, proportion, and motor development especially at the kindergarten (State Department of Early Learning, 2012). Physical and motor development often takes place alongside relatively predictable sequences from simple to more complexes (Salkind, 2002). During the kindergarten age, children develop motor skills concerning great share of their bodies and then progress to abilities using precise body parts. For example, they grip objects by holding them between their fingers and palm before using the thumb and index finger in a more refined gripper grasp (Salkind, 2002). During the kindergarten age, children often learn about health practices that could affect their health and consequently and usually set patterns for their lives. Adult molding and dialogue about good hygienic practices assist in equipping children at this age with the awareness and skills to flourish physically, emotionally, mentally, and socially. It also assists young children in meeting the tests of growing up while understanding the importance of safety, good hygiene, disease prevention, the right medical care (Salkind, 2002). According

Financial Accounting Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Accounting Theory - Essay Example The accounting frameworks are there for wide use of the financial statements of a company. A common framework of accounting would certainly be useful for the stakeholders of the company. But the criticism of the conceptual framework arises as these are not found so useful. The arguments are that the frameworks are not useful as there is lacking of practical evidences. The paper is an attempt to analyze that the conceptual frameworks of financial accounting are really useful or it is just a time wasting activity. Conceptual framework A conceptual framework is made for explaining the factors of the subject and thereby prepares a guideline for making a project. It is a kind of roadmap. The conceptual framework is a set of assumptions about the topic, the concepts, beliefs and theories about the topic. It is guidance to the persons who are associated with certain projects and also it is the guide to the users who are the other stakeholders of the project (Islamic Financial Institutions, n.d., p.1). For developing a conceptual framework experiential knowledge is most necessary to which doesn’t get needed attraction from the researchers. Because of this the conceptual frameworks are not so applicable in the practical field. ... Financial Accounting The existence of accounting theory is because it explains the existing practices and predicts the unobserved practices. The accounting theories also explains that why the firms follow some specific standards and should enable the users to forecast the attributes that may be followed by the firm (Schroeder, Clark & Cathey, 2010, p.1). The accounting theories are basically of two types Normative and positive. The normative theories of accounting are basically subjective and the positive accounting theories are mainly practical and verified enough (Kornai, 2008, p.124-125). The normative theories evolved over time and it shows that how the things should be and positive theories of accounting is more practical as it explain the cause of the event along with the definition of the things. For communicating with relevant information these accounting theories are needed by the accounting professionals and the base of the accounting theories are the conceptual frameworks (Nobes, 1997, p.4). W. A. Paton was the first one to make an accounting theory where he has expressed his views on the valuations of assets and liabilities and distribution of income and entity concepts. Since then the accountants understand the need of a generally accepted principle that will be followed by wide number of companies and their stakeholders. As a result of the great depression in the year 1929 the Generally Accepted Accounting Principle was emerged which was a set of accounting practices (Schroeder, Clark & Cathey, 2010, p.17). The next accounting theories were made by the researchers understanding the deficiencies of the existing framework. Since then some major accounting theories developed by the researchers like

Growth of Contemporary Christianity Research Paper

Growth of Contemporary Christianity - Research Paper Example According to the Pew Research Center, total Christian population is estimated to be 2.18 billion, out of 6.9 billion world population. Although the faith is considered to be a new advent in comparison with Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Judaism, yet the religion got popularity in all corners within few centuries of its advent. The credit certainly goes to the saints, preachers and the dedicated adherents of the faith, which turned out to be supportive in spreading its noble teachings. Although the founder of Christian faith belonged to Nazareth, the present day Asian state of Israel, yet it is very popular in Europe, America, Australia, Africa and remote areas of Asia. Growth of Christianity in India Although there is a misconception about the advent of the Christian faith in the aftermath of the European invasions on the sub-continent and colonization era, yet the belief has been introduced in the region during the apostolic age. Historical evidence reveals the very fact that Christianity got its way to the Indian sub-continent during the first century A.D., where St. Judas Thomas, one of the most dynamic pupils of Jesus Christ, was instructed to reach the northern parts of the country in order to spread the message of Christ and Scripture to the indigenous Indian population during the era of Indo-Parthian Kingdom of Takhshashila (Ninan, 2004: 5). ii The Acts of Thomasiii demonstrates that Thomas was successful in communicating the religious belief system to the monarch and subjects as well. Consequently, the king, his family and significant number of courtiers embraced Christianity. Kerala is stated to be the first region to accept Christianity by 3rd century A.D. Missickiv (20 02) notices the existence of an ancient Christian people living along the coast of Malabar in southern India whose origins extend back over one thousand years before they were discovered by European explorers. This is the same community that is claimed to be established by St. Thomas. Taken after the name of St. Thomas, this Mar-Thoma Christian community followed the Assyrian traditions of the faith, which actually consisted of the same conventions, language and teachings that had been attributed to Jesus Christ and his followers belonging to the areas situated in the present day Middle East. With the passage of time, Assyrian faith got popularity in the neighboring parts of the country, and the Indians suppressed under the nefarious clutches of caste and class Hindu system, sought relief in a religion that used to advocate equality, justice and respect of every citizen without discrimination. Consequently, the eastern and southern parts of the sub-continent also started welcoming C hristianity with open arms. Ninan also observes the arrival of Apostle Barthemew by 55 A.D. near Bombay, (present day coastal cosmopolitan city of Mumbai), who taught Gospel and other religious teachings to the local people, and played very important role in convincing different strata of the then Indian population. As a result, the members from the religious Brahman, warriors and peasant communities embraced new faith quite willingly.v However, it does not mean that the apostles and saints did not undergo trials and oppositions altogether in India. On the contrary, they had to face chains of difficulties and mountains of hardships during the course of introducing a religion that appeared to be quite opposite to the prevailing idol-worshipping teachings of the indigenous Hinduism. Thus, the apostles determined to spread Christianity in India had to meet with the same fate the African saints including St. Perpetua, St. Monica, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine of Hippo and others

Organizational Structure at Nokia

Organizational Structure at Nokia Organizational Structure at Nokia As of October 1, 2009 the organizational structure at Nokia was extremely mobile and flexible. Figure 1 Nokias organizational structure is horizontal and it allows for greater flexibility and speedy communication channels between different departments. The devices unit looks after the development and management of mobile devices portfolio which is targeted at all major consumer segments. The solutions department ensures that it continuously develops solutions whereby ensuring that a particular mobile device has integrated contents and personalized services and the output of these three components results into a leading mobile phone for the end user. The solutions unit works with other departments in close proximity to provide such solutions. The services department creates and designs internet services that enhance the consumer experience when Nokia phone users interact with the web. The main areas where this unit focuses on include messaging, maps, music, and Ovi developer tools. This department also ensures that there is a consistent increase in different services as the market evolves. The other significant department is Markets which acts like a supply chain department for Nokia. The unit is also responsible for sales channels, branding and marketing activities for various products and services. The corporate development department looks for future growth opportunities and it also plans for future strategic actions that will give the company a competitive advantage against competitors. This department also provides operational supports to other core departments such as Devices, Services, Solutions and markets. Nokia Siemens Networks is a joint venture with Siemens and it provides network infrastructure which is both fixed and wireless. This division also provides communications and networks service platforms. Finally, the last major division is NAVTEQ; this unit is a provider of detailed navigational maps and digital map data automobile navigation systems, navigation systems for mobile devices, internet mapping applications and mapping solutions to government and other businesses. NAVTEQ is an important part of Nokias operations since it provides downloadable maps and other content that will enhance the experience of consumers who use Nokias smart phones. Corporate Governance The way authority and responsibility is organized at Nokia it shows that the company is exemplary in its approach towards corporate governance. The companys strategic and significant natured decisions are made by the board. These matters might include strategic guidelines, approval of periodic plans and decisions on major divestments or investments. The company charter, article of association and Finnish Companies Act determine the roles and responsibilities of all directors and executive members. According to the auditors and company information strict guidelines are followed in terms of code of conduct and ethical behavior of each employee. Similarly the company complies with all stock market requirements of the Helsinki stock market, New York and Frankfurt stock exchanges. The company provides all necessary data to authorities at NYSE because the under the rules any firm that complies with its national laws must file any differences that exist between its national laws and the laws to be followed under NYSE.    Competitors of Nokia Corporation Nokias direct and major competitors include Motorola Inc, Cisco Systems Inc, Research in Motion, LM Ericsson Telephone Co., and QUALCOMM Inc. The company faces stiff competition in the business oriented mobile phone market from RIMs Blackberry series. Nokias E-series phones are geared to compete with the Blackberry series. Similarly the company faces challenges from Samsung and Motorola in the touch screen phone markets and the latest Android based phones that offer efficient and extremely user friendly interface to consumers. In the navigations and maps market Nokia, like the traditional manufacturers such as Garmin, TomTom, faces tough competition from the Google and Apple partnership that will make the iPhone the ultimate navigation and smart device for this generation. The difference between this navigation process that iPhone will offer is that consumers wouldnt need to download maps for a price or they would not need automotive navigations systems rather they would use their smart phones as navigation devices at very low rates. For the year 2009, Nokias market share remained flat at around 38% in the global handset market after consumers continue to encourage Apples iPhone in favor of the N series that Nokia is offering. Nokia also faces competition from Ericsson mobile phones in the music phones; Sony Ericssons superior voice quality and speaker quality give its phones an edge over Nokias Express music series. Industry Outlook for 2010 The expectations of the company for 2010 are considerably flat in terms of the performance of its various divisions. Overall the mobile device industry is expected to increase by about 10% in 2010 in terms of volume compared to 2009. For the year 2010 Nokia expects its mobile device market share to be flat compared to 2009, a similar sort of expectation also exists for Nokia and Nokia Siemens Networks as the venture sees a minimal increase in euro terms for the mobile and the fixed infrastructure services market. Importance of International Markets to Nokia Corporation In 2009, out of the total sales from the company Europe accounted for 36%, Chinas share was 16%, Middle East Africa 14%, North America 5%, Asia-Pacific 22% and Latin America 7%. As we can see from these numbers that about 59% of sales are coming from the developing world; for a company that began operations from Finland that is an important statistics since most of its revenues are coming from international markets especially from developing countries. The 10 markets from which Nokia generated the highest amounts of sales revenues are listed below in decreasing order; with the highest written first and lowest stated last: China, India, the UK, Germany, the United States, Russia, Indonesia, Spain, Brazil and Italy; when combined these markets provided 52% of the total sales in 2009. It is important to note here that China and India; the fastest growing economies in Asia are leaders for Nokia sales; secondly the list also contains growing markets such as Brazil and Russia. It is important to note here that because Nokias main sales driver is the mobile device market hence there are higher sales potential for Nokia in developing countries. This is because countries such as India and China are experiencing large demand for mobile phones due to the rapid growth and development of infrastructure especially network infrastructure. The rising levels of GDP per capita and income levels of people in the developing world are increasing their ability to purchase mobile phones therefore we could see that in the near future major growth would come from developing economies. Foreign Exchange exposures Faced by Nokia Nokia has businesses all over the world; this global presence means that assets and sales, liabilities and loans taken or completed in different parts of the world may be higher or lower in value when translated into the Euro or any home base currency. Because Nokia owns substantial assets in foreign markets therefore the company has to hedge and protect itself against the potential of currency adjustments in the negative direction. Nokias foreign exchange policy is developed by the treasury department of the company which looks after the interests of the company such that foreign exchange exposure is minimized and shareholder value is maximized. Under the policy; transactions which are considered of material value are hedged against foreign exchange exposures as long as the hedging tool is not uneconomical i.e. the hedging cost is lower or market liquidity is favorable. The company uses derivative financial instruments such as foreign exchange options and forward foreign exchange contracts to manage hedging and reduce the exposure. The group has a policy of not hedging 2-year or beyond forecasted foreign currency cash flows. New Product and Market development (cà ¢u c) Nokia operates in a highly drastic and technologically changing industry; on the consumer side the company also sees the acceptance and increasing demand for more sophisticated products therefore the company has to remain on its toes and come up with new products and services. The recent financial crisis which was coupled with economic downturn as well saw most industries and companies experiencing reduced profits or even losses. 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 RD Expenditure, EUR(m) 5968 5647 3897 3825 3776 RD as % of net sales 11.8 11.1 9.5 11.2 12.9 If we look at the table above we see that for the period 2004-08 the average RD expenditure as a percentage of sales was around 11%. This explains how important the development of new products and markets are to companies like Nokia. RD expenditure dipped slightly during 2009 by about 1% compared with 2008 figures because of the decline in sales. The reduction in total revenues during the year 2009 was because the brunt of the crisis or the lowest point of the crisis was considered to be the third and fourth quarters of 2009. The major problem faced by Nokia mobile devices sales was the fact that as macroeconomic aggregates plummeted world wide; people were laid off, disposal incomes squeezed and purchasing power declined in some regions because of currency depreciation, all these factors led to the decrease in demand for Nokia phones. Despite these tough circumstances Nokia continued to expand product development and introduced new products in the mobile device markets, new systems and networks from Nokia Siemens Partnership and navigation phones under the NAVTEQ division. Capital Structure and Liabilities Management at Nokia The average basic number of shares during 2009 was 3.705 billion, 2008 was 3.743 billion and 2007 was 3.885 billion. The difference between diluted and basic average number of shares was negligible during all the three years stated above. About 1% of the shares were owned by Nokia Corporation during 2009. There was not much change in the capital structure during the three years apart from a buy-back and cancellation of shares that were owned by the company during 2008 and 2009 respectively. 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 Net debt to equity % -14 -62 -69 -77 -78 Equity Ratio % 41.2 45.5 52.6 56.4 64.6 Return on Equity % 27.5 53.9 35.5 27.1 21.5 Interest-bearing liabilities, EUR (m)4 452 1 090 249 300 132 If we closely analyze the net debt to equity ratio for the 5 year period we see that initially in the years 04, 05 06 and even 07 the company had surplus assets over total debt. Though this situation drastically declined during 2008 as the credit crunch forced Nokia to borrow money and bridge the gap between its working capital. This factor eroded the asset base advantage the company was holding for the previous 4 years before 2008. Another important factor was that short-term borrowings rose substantially during 2008. Short-term borrowings increased from 714 million Euros in 2007 to 3,578 million Euros in 2008. The equity ratio represents the amount of assets represented or funded by the equity holders. From the table above we can see that the assets funded through equity has been on a declining run throughout the five year period. This also explains that as years have passed by liabilities have been increasing used as a way of financing assets. Many analysts believe that borrowing is a lesser expensive way of raising funds compared to equity as interest paid reduces effective tax rate; secondly creditors do not have a say in the way management runs the business; thirdly no dividends need to be paid out. On the other hand equity has its own advantages such as no finance costs; in case of bankruptcy the claim of common shareholders is last only after other creditors have been paid out. Overall companies are suggested to find an optimum equity and liability combination by working out the WACC at different levels. 2007 was considered one of the best years in Nokias history not only did the stock do well but the companys other major indicators were in green as well. For instance the return on equity was around 53% during 2007; that is a phenomenal return for shareholders from a company that competes in such a tough competitive environment. The return on equity declined significantly during 2008. As we see from the table that the value declined to 27.5% from 53.9% in 2007. This again explains the difficulty the company faced during 2008 in terms of low sales volumes, depressed prices and difficult financial conditions. Nokia Corporations shares are listed on the following stock markets: NASDAQ OMX, (Helsinki), Frankfurter, and New York Stock Exchange. The company delisted its Swedish Depository Receipts (SDRs) from the Stockholm Stock Exchange. The last day of trading of these SDRs was June 1, 2007. Raising capital and loans from foreign capital markets has a number of benefits and a few disadvantages as well. In terms of the benefits; firstly by listing stocks in a market such as NYSE a company like Nokia gave itself exposure to one of the most valuable and important stock markets in the world. New York is the financial capital of the worlds largest economy and having the ability to raise funds in such a market builds great reputation for a company apart from substantial capital. Similarly the SDR move into the Swedish Stock Market was a strong move as that would have strengthened the capital structure before the delisting. SDRs provide a substantial capital inflow in lieu of a stable and known cost of capital that gives the firms financial cost structure sustainability and consistency. In terms of the disadvantages economic activities in a foreign country might impact the shareholder value of the whole group. Though this cost is offset by the point that todays financial markets are so dependent on each other that market risks are almost similar in virtually all countries and their stock markets. The important thing here is that companies like Nokia must be aware of the trade cycles and the economic cycles of the world and individual markets and there relationship between each other because that will determine the impact of raising capital in foreign markets. Impact on Market Value as a Result of Strategies in Foreign Exchange Risk, Raising Capital and Moving into New Markets Technological firms generally have higher risk attached to their stock prices and market values therefore we expect them to do extremely well when the economy is booming and the company is able to come up with consistent and high quality products. The case of Nokia is no different the company has successfully established itself as one of the most reliable and advanced manufacturer of mobile devices. Steadily over the years Nokia has moved into new markets which have diversified the portfolio of the company hence spreading the risk over different but related markets. Nokias move to enter new markets has been a good way of diversifying business interests in the sense that the company has not only developed new products but it has also moved into new physical markets. Developing new products has its own advantages but moving into new geographical markets can benefit companies from the all important concept of economies of new scale. Going into new markets exposes the company to absolutely new customers hence increasing the total potential customer base of the company. Raising capital in foreign markets also impacts the market value of the company in a positive way. The company, by raising additional capital in new markets, not only increases its ability to spend money on acquisitions, development, and supply-chain but also gives credibility and higher standing to the companys share in the capital markets and makes the company a strong candidate for a better rating from agencies. The above graph is the stock price movement of Nokia stock, listed on NYSE, versus the SP 500 over a five year period. What is evident here is that consistently the Nokia stock has out performed the SP 500 for most of the time period under discussion. In percentage terms the stock has performed extremely well during the later half of 2007 up to mid 2008; even during the tough times of the late 2009 the stock did better than the overall SP index. The above graph is again representative of the fact that the companys stock performed better than most top company stocks during the boom period of 2007. Credit has to be given to the financial managers of the company since there prudent steps ensured a better than average EPS for the company and subsequently even better share price performance. Evaluation of the Firms Finance Managers In terms of hedging and controlling the foreign exchange risk I think the financial managers did a good job by employing a prudent policy of hedging all those cash inflows and outflows which were due within 2 years period. This is a prudent approach; secondly if we look at the table below we see that the company has remained profitable despite the financial and economic crisis that plagued the global markets for the past 2 and a half years. 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 Profit before tax, EUR (m) 962 4970 8268 5723 4971 4705 % of net sales 2.35 9.8 16.2 13.9 14.5 16 Dividends, EUR (m) 1482 1520 2111 1761 1641 1539 Profit attributable to quity holders of the parent 891 3988 7205 4306 3616 3192 EPS (basic) 0.24 1.07 1.85 NA NA NA We also see that the company gave dividends in all the last six years under discussion; this also shows consistency and the right mindset of financial managers who rightly understand the need to rollout dividends in order to ensure continuous investments from investors in the near future. The above graph shows that profitability peaked during the 2007 period and steadily declined thereafter this also shows the difficult financial and economic environment that was weathered by the corporate sectors of different economies. The impact of the crises were so great that profits before taxes almost decreased by 50% in 2008 from 2007 profits before taxes.

Surrogacy :: social issues

Surrogacy In today's society, couples with breeding problems and homosexual couples have been increasing. There are a lot of reason which causes them not to be able to breed any child. There can by body problems, or other problems. Those couples will feel lonely and isolated, it will make them envy other parents who have a group of children. There are many alternatives that would allow these couples to have a child. There is Adoption, Fostering, etc. But the main particular method this essay is chosen to discuss is Surrogacy. Surrogacy, is known as a act of substitution and replacement in the dictionary. But, people define surrogacy as a egg donation to a surrogate mother, a surrogate mother may carry a child for someone whom she may not have never previously known. She agrees to become artificially inseminated or undergo IVF treatment to carry a child and then after the birth give the child to the intended parents. Therefore, in our terms of reference surrogate motherhood is defined as an arrangement under which a woman agrees to breed a child for another couple. While there are two main types of surrogacy, gestational surrogacy and traditional, there are also different types of arrangements, agency arranged and independently arranged. Also surrogacy may be done between strangers who never meet, persons who meet only a few times, persons who meet and become quite close over the course and often after the surrogacy, and those who are friends before ever entering a surrogacy arrangement or are family membe rs. The procedures of surrogacy the couple have to follow are firstly, to interview intended parents or surrogate mothers and egg donors, then they will have to choose a match and complete all medical and psychological screening, lastly, they will begin medicated cycles and attempt pregnancy. It would take around a minimum of 12 months to complete any surrogacy program. The cost of surrogacy programs are surely expensive, but to the couples it may not be an important issue. The cost of a first time surrogate mother is around $30,000, and with a second time surrogate mother would cost around $40,000. Altogether, the cost is approximately $75,000 for a singleton birth plus medical expenses. This includes the surrogate's expenses fee, IVF transfer fee, cycling allowance, pregnancy allowance, surrogate's attorney fee, maternity clothing allowance, multiple fetus expense, retainer fee, the intended parent's attorney fees, court filing fees, maternity costs and the costs of delivery and hospital, maternity costs of OB/GYN, the stepparent adoption/parentage establishment fee, and finally, the surrogate's fee.